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Genetic variability is essential for adaptations in different environmental and seasonal conditions generic desyrel 100 mg on-line anxiety symptoms muscle twitching. Based on their phenotypic appearance discount 100 mg desyrel with visa anxiety symptoms 89, the method of clonal selection is employed to select improved variety from a mixed population (clones) generic 100 mg desyrel anxiety symptoms 8 months. Selected plants are multiplied through vegetative propagation to give rise to a clone. Introduced varieties sometimes do not get adjusted easily with our local environment. Sometimes, it is essential to select suitable and desirable variety from the introduced plants. For example, a mung Phaseolus mungo variety was introduced from China but was not giving good yield and produced dull coloured seeds. From amongst the introduced mung crop, a plant suddenly produced large and bright coloured seeds. This variant plant was selected and further subjected to inter or intra specific crosses with our native crop. In this way, new varieties were produced and released as newly developed mung variety. Hybridization Hybridization is a method in plant breeding to improve the native crops by obtaining diverse genotypes that can be used as a source material for collection of crop with desirable characters and genes obtained from many parts of the world. It involves crossing of two varieties or species or genera having desirable genes and breeding them together of the desirable traits into one progeny, which is called the hybrid. Hybrids are the products of first generation obtained by crossing genetically unrelated parents. When two individuals of the same species are crossed, it is called inbreeding or selfing or self-pollination. By careful observation of morphological features, we can remove these deleterious and harmful alleles by selection. Naked protoplasts are obtained through dissolution of their cell walls by the macerating enzymes such as pectinase and cellulase. Heterosis The superiority of the F1 hybrid in performance over its parents is called heterosis or hybrid vigour. Vigour refers to increase in growth, yield, resistance to diseases, pests and drought. F hybrids of maize show 25% 1 increase in yield when compared to their own parent crop. Vegetative propagation is the best suited measure for maintaining hybrid vigour, since the desired characters are not lost and can persist over a period of time. Heritable and desirable variations occur in nature by mutation, polyploidy, recombination and chromosomal aberrations. A diploid plant has two sets of chromosomes but any organism in which the number of sets of chromosome is doubled is called a polyploid. When chromosome number is doubled by itself in the same plant, it is called autopolyploidy. Polyploidy can be induced by the use of colchicine to double the chromosome number. Allopolyploids are produced by multiplication of chromosome sets that are initially derived from two different species. Through the technique of anther and ovary culture, haploid plants can be modified to diploid ones by doubling their chromosomes. Variations that are brought forth through plant tissue culture are called somoclonal variation. Caesium, ethyl methane sulfonate, nitromethyl urea), we can increase the rates of mutation eg. Atomita 2-rice with saline tolerance and pest resistance, groundnuts with thick shells are products of breeding methods through induced mutation. Plants raised through tissue culture are free from pathogens, which are widely cultivated. Whenever, a trait that shows disease resistance in a plant is observed, the best way to transfer that trait to other useful crop is by the method of backcross. Repeated back crosses are attempted with the parent crop with more desirable characters and such a crop is known as recurrent parent. For example, A is a non-recurrent parent and B* is a recurrent parent with desirable trait. A x B* C x B* D x B* E x B* F x B* C D E F G* with disease resistance * desirable disease resistance 235 Genetic engineering Genetic engineering will enable the plant or animal breeder to select the particular gene from one plant and then place the same gene into another plant for it to express its desired character. Today, genetic engineering is widely employed as a tool in modern crop improvements. Genetic engineering can be defined as the formation of new combinations of heritable material by the insertion of foreign nucleic acid molecule from other sources. The foreign genes are generally incorporated into a host organism either through a bacterial plasmid or a virus, which acts as vectors (vehicular traffic). Genes are compared to biological software and are the programs that drive the growth development and functioning of an organism. By changing the software in a precise and controlled manner, it becomes possible to produce desired changes in the characteristics of the organisms. Its objective is to isolate and introduce a gene or genes into a crop plant that normally does not possess them. Herbicide resistance, saline resistance, altered flower colour, improved protein quality and protection against viral infection are few examples of recently formed transgenic higher plants by using this technology eg. Improved varieties Improvement of a crop lies in its genetic make up and the environment in which it grows and interacts.
Brain injuries Mechanisms of brain injury Abrupt deceleration of a moving head results in minor injury at site of impact (coup injury) or contusion of the brain opposite the point of impact (contra coup injury) order desyrel 100mg online anxiety symptoms panic attacks. From clinical point of view discount desyrel 100 mg mastercard anxiety xanax side effects, brain injuries could be primary (occurring at the time of impact) or secondary (develops subsequently) buy desyrel 100mg fast delivery anxiety symptoms vs heart attack. Primary brain injury Cerebral concussion This is a clinical diagnosis characterized by temporary dysfunction. It is most severe immediately after injury and resolves after variable period of time. It is often accompanied by loss of consciousness and amnesia for the moment is common. Post-concussion syndrome which consists of headache, irritability, depression and lassitude may be seen as late manifestations. Cerebral contusion and Laceration Pia and arachnoid tearing and intracerebral bleeding characterize these conditions. It usually produces focal neurologic deficits that persist for more than 24 hours. Secondary brain injuries Secondary brain injuries are effects which develop secondary to subsequent anatomical and physiological derangements. Extradural hematoma: This condition usually follows temporal bone fracture with tearing of middle meningeal artery leading to hematoma collection. Acute Sudbural hematoma: This state is the most common intracranial mass lesion following head injury. Chronic subdural hematoma: This is most common in infants and adults over 60 years of age. Patients usually present with progressive neurological deficit more than 2 weeks after the trauma. Intracerebral hematoma: Intracerebral hematoma results from areas of contusion coalescing into contusion hematoma. Cerebral swelling (Brain edema) This results from vascular engorgement, due to loss of auto regulation and increased extra and intracellular fluid. Infections Compound depressed fractures or basal skull fractures can lead to meningitis or cerebral abscess. Patient assessment In unconscious head injury patient, primary survey followed by resuscitation, if any impairment, should be the initial approach. History Points to determine in the history are: Period of loss of consciousness Period of post traumatic amnesia Cause and circumstance of the injury Presence of headache and vomiting. Physical examination Then Patients will be examined for evidences of injury Assess level of consciousness (Glasgow coma scale ) Pupillary response Complete neurologic examination, look for lateralizing signs. These have significant contribution on subsequent management decision and outcome. This can be done through: Controlled hyperventilation Diuretics or Hyper-osmotic agents The role of surgery in head injury is to remove mass lesions and to prevent the delayed development of infection by treating open head injuries. Any hematoma found should be rapidly evacuated; otherwise it can lead to deterioration of the patients status due to brain compression. Compound depressed skull fracture requires immediate operation to prevent intracranial infection. Fractures are debrided and bone fragments washed in antibiotic solutions and immediately replaced. Post-operative control of amount of fluid (not to be given more than 2/3 of the daily requirement), electrolytes, positioning in 20-30 degree elevation of the bed and management convulsion and of late sequel of head injury should be accomplished. Displaced bone fragments and inter-vertebral disks may herniate to the spinal cord causing compression, commonly seen in cervical and thoraco lumbar region. Brown-sequard Syndrome: Ipsilateral paresis and contra-lateral loss of pain and temperature sensation. Anterior spinal cord syndrome: Paralysis occurs below the level of the lesion with loss of temperature, touch and pain sensation. Central cord syndrome: hand and upper extremities are affected with sparing of lower extremities. Both complete and incomplete injuries of the spinal cord can result in neurogenic bladder. Immediately after injury, spinal shock ensues in which bladder reflex does not develop. There could be a finding of flaccid paralysis, depressed deep tendon reflex and sensory level. Patient assessment Early detection of spinal injury will prevent further injury to the cord. Multiple injuries, seat belt markings and neurologic findings should alert the possibility of spinal injury. In conscious patients biplanar x-rays of the symptomatic part of spine are adequate. In cervical spines, unstable injuries are easily overlooked in lateral and A-P films. It is treated symptomatically initially with rest, then with splinting and mobilization as necessary. When you assess his level of consciousness, he opens his eyes when pinched, withdraws from pain and he is confused. Although the musculoskeletal system can be affected by several conditions like congenital, metabolic or neoplastic diseases, traumatic and infectious disorders are the most important ones in developing countries. Etiology Staphylococcus aureus is the agent in 80% of cases Gram negative rods and Staphylococcus in neonates H. Influenza is seen in children under 5 years of age History of trauma is common and may predispose children to osteomyelitis Pathology Bacteria reach the bone mostly via the hematogenous route.
This seems to be due to either one of the following reason: contraceptive failure (Portugal purchase desyrel 100 mg on-line anxiety pregnancy, for instance generic 100mg desyrel mastercard anxiety chat room, having a huge use of emergency contraception purchase desyrel 100 mg amex anxiety urination, with sales increasing enormously from 80. This is, of course, a pilot study conducted at high-school, needed to be followed by further and larger studies with a core module of sexual and reproductive health (e. Ideally, the population that, in some countries, already drop-out from school at this age one of the high-risk groups should be included. It is also more difficult to identify evidence based knowledge of eventual different risk factors associated to different age groups. An important issue concerns teenage pregnancy when it results from a wanted decision and not from contraceptive failure. This happens sometimes mostly among ethic minorities and lower class populations and creates a need for specific approach to prevent it, if possible. It should here be understood that for a considerable number of health professionals the huge majority of young teenage pregnancies should be prevented, for health, social and emotional reasons. Portugal and Belgium) the law specifically forbids that national health data can be disaggregated by their ethnical provenance. One understands that this was done in order to prevent eventual racist or chauvinist politics. But under a Public Health point of view this becomes a serious difficulty to document the need for a specific intervention targeted at those groups. Also, in the youth pilot survey about sexual health, some socio-economic and ethnical inequalities were probably not detected. First, because of the sampling itself: students attending the high-school answering a questionnaire during the classes. Young people (probably, mostly from ethical minorities) that already drop out from the school (in certain cases those with high risk sexual behaviours) were missed. As far as total fertility rate is considered, again the consensual clinical and health policy- makers feeling is that the rate is higher for several ethical minorities and among some of the lowest socio-economic levels. Indeed, it is accepted that fertility rate is often higher among these sub-groups. This indicator should be considered together with the mean maternal age at first childbirth, because usually it is accepted that the first one is one of the consequences of the second one: if a woman has her first childbirth at the end of her twenties, most probably she will not have many children. However, in Poland, an extremely low fertility rate coexists with a relatively young maternal age at the first childbirth (24. Whatever the relationship between these two indicators is, the total fertility rate in the eight countries considered in this study ranged from 1. Under an epidemiologic and Public Health perspective, having the first term pregnancy after 30 years old is a recognized increased risk factor for breast cancer. This indicator by no way necessarily reflects direct contraceptive failure due to both induced abortion and intended pregnancy among some adolescents. But, anyway, the reasons for such a huge discrepancy among different Member States have to carefully be analyzed and critically understood in the context of specific health and cultural contexts and environments of each region, community and country. In certain cases the same disease can affect more than one single recommended indicator. Also, mean age at first intercourse and contraceptive use at first intercourse can be linked with age-specific birth rate in teenagers. Contraceptive failure is obviously related to induced abortion, two important indicators of sexual morbidity, even when the induced abortion is safe, legal and rare. As already mentioned, mothers are increasingly delivering their first child at older ages. Maternal and fetal problems are well known: increased incidence of dystocic deliveries (e. More difficult to evaluate in all its extension is the morbidity linked to an unpleasant sexual life. Sexual and reproductive health is an important measure of the general health and social well being of a population. Moreover, the scope of sexual and reproductive health extends across the life span (from adolescence to the ageing) and across several Public Health domains. In order that sound evidence based politics can be taken on these issues, some more evidence based knowledge and wisdom is needed, overcoming existing ignorance and misconceptions. This can be done with small adaptations and will be a reliable approach to teenagers specific needs and autonomy. Monitoring reproductive health in Europe what are the best indicators of reproductive health? Factors associated with teenage pregnancy in the European Union countries: a systematic review. Special issue of European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 111 Suppl 1:S5- S14, 2003. Gissler M, Dumitrescu A, Addor V: Improving the performance of National Health Information Systems: the 2002-2003 reform in Finland from an international perspective. Monitoring health in Europe: opportunities, challenges, and progress Eur J Public Health 13 (supplement 3): 1-4, 2003. The generic term for such indicators is health expectancies and they are summary measures of population health combining information on survival with the prevalence of a health measure (Robine 2006). The most common health measure used is disability, producing disability-free life expectancy.
Increasing evidence has been accumulated indicating the important role of epigenetic regu- lation in developmental programming desyrel 100mg sale anxiety of death. The genome undergoes major epigenetic alterations during early development desyrel 100mg without prescription anxiety for no reason, when genome-wide changes in epigenetic marks orchestrate chromatin in a way destined to form different organs and tissues in the body purchase desyrel 100 mg with mastercard anxiety symptoms flushed face. Once estab- lished, the epigenetic marks are stably maintained through somatic cell divisions and create unique, lineage-specic patterns of gene expression. In mammalian development, there are two main periods of epigenetic modication: gametogenesis and early embryogenesis [24]. Early embryogenesis is then characterized by a second genome- wide demethylation wave, and patterns of methylation are re-established after implantation. The postfertilization demethylation and remethylation phases are likely to play a role in the removal of acquired epigenetic modications, which can be inuenced by individual genetic and environmental factors [25]. The epigenome is therefore likely to be particularly vulnerable to the adverse inuences during gametogenesis and early embryogenesis [24]. Nutritional and endocrine factors have been repeatedly shown to be able to reprogram the epigenotype of the embryo [26,27]. In human beings, the window of epigenetic developmental plasticity extends from preconception to early childhood and involves epigenetic responses to environmental changes, which exert their effects during life-history phase transitions [28]. The accelerated adult atherogenesis associated with maternal hyperlipidemia is another example of the long-term epigenetic programming [33,34]. Dysre- gulation in epigenetic pathways can contribute to aging in general as well [2,28,35]. The role of early-life epigenetic events in developmental programming of adult disease and aging has been repeatedly reported in animal models. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a summary of theoretical models and recent research ndings which indicate that early-life conditions can program human adult health and aging via epigenetic mechanisms. One consequence of such developmental adaptation may be a long-term resetting of cellular energy homeostasis via epigenetic modication of genes involved in a number of key regulatory pathways. For example, reduced maternal-fetal nutrition during early and mid gestation affects adipose tissue development and adiposity of the fetus by setting an increased number of adipocyte precursor cells [43]. The intrinsic pathway of apoptosis, particularly p53, is important in regulating placental cell turnover in response to damage. Currently, a genome-wide epigenetic proling has become feasible, and a recent study by Einstein et al. This genome-wide study suggests that many genes are epigenetically susceptible to alterations in maternal nutrition, and that comprehensive effects on the epigenome can be induced by mild as well as severe intrauterine insults. It gives the possibility that the epigenetic alterations underlying devel- opmental programming are not restricted to a few specic genes. It is also possible that small but widespread epigenetic alterations induced by a poor intrauterine environment can persisted over a lifetime and hence can lead to the acceleration of an age-associated epigenetic decline [10]. Epidemiologic studies have found that higher maternal gestational weight gain is associated with fetal macrosomia (arbitrarily dened as a birth weight of more than 4000 g) and consequent risk for obesity and its cardiometabolic complications among offspring. There is also some evidence that epigenetic changes might occur in response to maternal overnutrition [50,51]. Altered epigenetic regulation can be induced by both maternal under- and overnutrition within genes that control lipid and carbohydrate metabolism and within genes involved in the central appetiteeenergy balance neural network [51]. Perinatally acquired microstructural and epigenomic alterations in regulatory systems of metabolism and body weight seem to be critical, leading to a cardiometabolic risk disposition throughout life [54]. People with high birth weight also were shown to have higher death rates from both prostate cancer and breast cancer in adulthood [55e57]. Intrauterine exposure to the high levels of growth hormones was initially proposed as an underlying mechanism, increasing both cell proliferation and birth weight and predis- posing to cancer in later life [57]. Both human and animal evidence suggest that exposure to obese intrauterine environment can epigenetically program the offspring obesity risk by inuencing appetite, metabolism, and activity levels [59,60]. Given that lipids act as both transcriptional activators and signaling molecules, excess fetal lipid exposure may regulate genes involved in lipid sensing and metabolism through epigenetic mechanisms [61]. Prenatal overnutrition and maternal antibiotics, as well as low physical activity during pregnancy can result in fetal macrosomia (larger than normal fetal size and weight). Fetal macrosomia-related epigenetic reprogramming causes increased anabolic hormone levels, decreased catabolic hormone concentrations, and up-regulation of adipogenic genes. Fetal macrosomia is associated with long-term health problems including some cancers and probably type 2 diabetes. Crucial to proper infant growth and develop- ment is the placenta, and alterations to placental gene function may reect differences in the intrauterine environment which functionally contribute to infant growth and may affect the consequent health outcomes. Such a programming effect of milk intake in early life could potentially have implications for cancer and ischemic heart disease risk many years later. Different gestational dietary stressors (undernutrition, overnutrition, or a modied supply of key nutrients) can elicit similar metabolic responses in offspring [9]. High carbohydrate/protein ratio in the maternal diet was shown to be linked to impaired glucose homeostasis and raised blood pressure in offspring [89,90]. The authors suggested that a high carbohydrate intake in early pregnancy suppresses placental growth, especially if combined with a low dairy protein intake in late pregnancy, and such an effect could have long-term consequences for the offsprings risk of cardiovascular disease [91]. While the molecular basis of prenatal nutritional programming is unknown, available animal and human data suggest that epigenetic changes in gene expression play a substantial role in the link between the maternal diet, and altered metabolism and body composition in the adult offspring [93e95]. According to the epigenetic programming hypothesis, suboptimal maternal diet induces epimutations in offspring during early embryonic development, and that altered expression of affected genes is maintained into adulthood, eventually affecting health [9]. Epigenetic mechanisms play a key role in mediating between the early-life nutrient inputs and the ensuing phenotypic changes throughout the entire life and seem to be responsible, in part, for the biological changes that occur during aging [96].