By H. Marcus. Daniel Webster College. 2018.
Oxireductase These enzymes catalyze oxidation or reduction of their substrates by removing or adding electrons from or to substrates buy vasotec 10 mg without a prescription blood pressure medication kinds. Hydrolases These enzymes split larger molecules into smaller ones by the hydrolysis of water and breaking of specific covalent bonds cheap vasotec 5 mg fast delivery heart attack in 20s. Lyases These enzymes catalyze the cleavage of specific covalent bonds and removal of groups without hydrolysis order vasotec 10 mg heart attack 85 blockage. Properties of enzymes m Like inorganic catalysts, the enzymes are active in very small amounts and remain unchanged on completion of the reaction. The temperature at which an enzyme shows its highest activity is called optimum temperature. Temperature above 50C normally denatures the protein and so the enzyme loses its activity. Tripsins are active in alkaline medium, diastase in neutral medium while pepsin in acidic medium. The chemical substance that combines with the enzymes and inhibits its catalytic activity is called an inhibitor. Theories explaining the mechanism of enzyme action Two theories have been proposed to explain the mechanism and enzyme action. According to this theory, first a physical contact is made between the enzyme and the substrate. As only a specific key fits in a particular lock to open it, a specific substrate combines with the active site of specific enzyme. After the reaction is + + Active site Products Enzyme Substrate Enzyme-susbstrate Released enzyme complex Fig. Substrate Koshlands induced fit theory Enzyme-substrate complex Induced fit theory was pro- posed by Koshland. The substrate induces the enzyme to adjust its shape leading to the formation of enzyme sub- Fig. Only those molecules which possess a certain amount of excess energy above the average energy of normal molecules are able to react to form products. This excess energy which a normal molecule must aquire in order to react is known as energy of activation (Ea). At higher temperature, the rate of chemical reaction Energy of activation becomes faster, because without increased temperature brings enzyme Energy of activation about increased number of with enzyme activated molecules. But in Reactants the case of enzyme catalyzed reaction, the rate of reaction is optimum at normal body Products temperature. Because all the Reaction co-ordinates molecules either energy-rich or energy-poor combine with Fig. It is the only biological process that makes use of suns light energy for driving the life machinery. Hence, photosynthesis is regarded as leader of all processes both biological and abiological. It is the most fundamental of all biochemical reactions by which plants synthesize organic compounds in the chloroplast from carbondioxide and water with the help of sunlight. Significance of photosynthesis m Photosynthesis is a source of all our food and fuel. It is the only biological process that acts as the driving vital force for the whole animal kingdom and for the non-photosynthetic organism. Photochemical and biosynthetic phases The pigments involved in photosynthesis are called photosynthetic pigments. They are chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids, xanthophyll and phycobilins. Chlorophyll a is a universal pigment present in the plants in which water is one of the raw materials for photosynthesis. Chlorophylls are highly efficient in absorbing solar energy and they are directly linked to photosynthetic electron transport. Photosynthetic pigments other than chlorophyll a are generally called accessory pigments eg. The primary function of photosystems is to trap light energy and converts it to chemical energy. The granal lamella where the photosynthetic pigments are aggregated to perform photosynthetic activities is called active centre. Mechanism of photosynthesis The overall reaction of photosynthesis can be written as follows. Electron transport system The light driven reactions of photosynthesis are referred to as electron transport chain. Manganese, calcium and chloride ions play prominent roles in the photolysis of water. Cyclic and noncyclic photophosphorylation In chloroplasts, phosphorylation occurs in two ways noncyclic photophosphorylation and cyclic photophosphorylation. Therefore, this electron transport is called noncyclic electron transport and the accompanying phosphorylation as noncyclic photophosphorylation. During this transport of electrons, two phosphorylations take place - one between ferredoxin and cytochrome b6 and the other between cytochrome b6 and cytochrome f. Fixation of 180 Difference between cyclic and noncyclic electron transport and photophosphorylation Cyclic photophosphorylation Noncyclic photophosphorylation 1. The electrons are not cycled back chlorophyll molecule is cycled but compensated by the electrons back from photolysis of water. Photolysis of water and evolution of oxygen do not take evolution of oxygen take place.
Cyclophosphamide is Clinical monitoring is the best method to immunosuppression cheap vasotec 5mg without a prescription blood pressure over 60. Pleocytosis may be commonly used 5 mg vasotec free shipping hypertension 101, but there is little clinical follow patients over time 10mg vasotec visa blood pressure herbs. Neurology Empiric titration in immunosuppression with Brain biopsy is rarely needed to confirm 1992;42:1649-1657. Risk factors for central nervous and hypertensive etiologies be excluded prior neuropathy. It is that intermittent neuroleptic treatment is not months while patients continue to be treated associated with antipsychotic drug therapy. Most cases are mild to moderate, but a small percentage can be Organic brain damage can easily escape notice. Clozaril has is most common and consists of Smacking, treatment with neuroleptics. These movements are involuntary Women are more at risk, with a Tardive dystonia and tardive akathisia and purposeless. It should be particularly tardive dystonia seem to respond Every clinician should obtain informed medical avoided in patients suffering from depression, best to doses ranging from 300-750 mg/day. The diagnosis and Dopamine-depleting medications, such as treatment of tardive disorders. Managing antipsychoticinduced 20-80 mg/day may be the most effective tardive dyskinesia. The most frequent pattern is waxing and waning of mild-to-moderate 407 Tetanus Manifestations of tetanus increase in severity during the first 3 days after onset; remain stable Basics Diagnosis for 5-7 days, and resolve within 1-2 weeks. Disease is due to nonsterile birth conditions and contamination of the umbilical Tetanus is a noncommunicable and Other causes of bacterial and viral meningitis cord stump. Clinically it is Hypocalcemic tetany opisthotonus, and spasms are clinical signs. Generalized muscle rigidity involving Specimens from the wound may reveal Sex neck, trunk, and extremity muscles follows. Spasms of forming bacteria that is universally found in the diaphragmatic, intercostal, and laryngeal environment. Tetanospasmin inhibits neurotransmitter Reflexes are increased and sensory examina- release presynaptically at the neuromuscular tion is normal. Irritability and restlessness are junction, autonomic terminals, and inhibitory seen, but consciousness is preserved. Muscles in the region of Nonsterile obstetric delivery and injury go into intermittent painful spasms. This contamination of umbilical stump with the form is benign and muscular spasms subside organism spontaneously within weeks. When localized to Wounds bearing necrotic tissue, foreign the head, it is called the cephalic form. Respiratory insufficiency due to Follow-Up laryngospasm or spasms of respiratory muscles is Medications a major problem. Since then, several suggest that benzodiazepines, such as clon- placebo-controlled randomized allocation azepam, reduce tic severity in some patients. The control tics, then risperidone (Risperdal), A retrospective report noted "marked" behavioral spectrum of tic disorders: a thioridazine (Mellaril), trifluoperazine clinical improvement in 57% of 47 patients community-based study. However, no proof An open trial using nicotine patch indicates The Tourett s Syndrome Study Group. Head tremor may be present of the cervical muscles, resulting in clonic is commonly associated with torticollis and Head deviation can be controlled temporarily (spasmodic, tremor) head movements and/or may confuse the examiner. Head antagoniste: touching chin, face, or back of deviation can be described as follows: head. Torticollis has a Neurologic: Physical measures such as stretching, heat, and broad differential diagnosis (see below). The role of Genetics hemianopia such measures is limited in idiopathic torticollis. No routine laboratory or Epidemiology and outcome of cervical dystonia ( Chemodenervation, Botulinum Toxin imaging studies required. By reduced but not completely abolished clinical findings and associative movement selectively injecting various doses into affected symptoms. Repeated injections often are necessary every Patients should be made aware of the risk of cervical dystonia. Baltimore: Williams & are relative contraindications to botulinum toxin Wilkins, 1993. Baltimore: Williams & administered only by a physician expert in the Wilkins, 1993. Secondary resistance to botulinum toxin is becoming an issue in clinical practice. Although initial tics may involve In patients with obsessive-compulsive Prevalence the head, over time the tics often involve the symptoms, behavioral therapy in conjunction limbs and trunk. Age the suppression creates an inner tension Tics begin most commonly by age 6-7 years and eventually the tics must be released. Clonidine has a short half-life, so tid or There is a higher incidence of learning involuntary and that children should not be qid dosing often is required. It is advisable Patients with mild symptoms who do not need not to abruptly stop the medication because of medications can be followed on an as-needed the risk of hypertension. New Stimulants may exacerbate tics in some continuing gradual improvement throughout York: Raven Press, 1992.
Habit Mostly perennial herbs attaining considerable height buy vasotec 10 mg with amex arterial ulcer, perennating by means of rhizome (eg order 10mg vasotec mastercard blood pressure medication olmesartan. The apparent 10 mg vasotec visa blood pressure medication making blood pressure too low, unbranched, errect and areal pseudostem is formed by the long, stiff and sheathy leaf bases which are rolled around one another to form an aerial pseudostem. The central axis that is concealed at the bottom of the pseudostem is called shaft. At the time of flowering, the shaft elongates, pierces through the pseudostem and produces an inflorescence terminally. Musa is a monocorpic perennial, because it produces flowers and fruits once during its life time. The flowers are protected by large, brightly coloured, spirally arranged, boat shaped bracts called spathes. The male flowers lie within the upper bracts, the female flowers within the lower bracts and the bisexual flowers within the middle bracts. In Musa, the three tepals of the outer whorl and the two lateral tepals of the inner whorl are fused by valvate aestivation to form 5 toothed tube like structure. Androecium Basically stamens 6, in two whorls of 3 each, arranged opposite to the tepals. In Musa only 5 stamens are fertile and the inner posterior stamen is either absent or represented by a staminode. The filament is filiform and rudimentary ovary or pistillode is often present in the male flower. Seed: Non - endospermous 56 Botanical description of Musa paradisiaca Habit Gignatic monocorpic perennial herb. The three tepals of the outer whorl and the two lateral tepals of the inner whorl are fused by valvate aestivation to form 5 toothed tube like structure. Musa paradisiaca Floral diagram 58 Androecium Stamens 6, in two whorls of 3 each, arranged opposite to the tepals. Only 5 stamens are fertile and the inner posterior stamen is either absent or represented by a staminode. Fruit An elongated fleshy berry and the seeds are not produced in cultivated varities. The tender green bananas, the shaft and the flowers are cooked and eaten as vegetable. The sap obtained from the sheathy leaf bases is considered to be an antidote for cobra bite. The small fruits obtained from Musa chinensis (Dwarf banana) are sweet and edible. Fibre plant The fibres obtained from sheathy leaf bases of Musa textilis (Manila hemp) are woven into Abaca cloth and used for cordage. Ornamental plants Ravenala madagascariensis (Travellers palm), Strelitzia reginae (the bird of paradise flower) and Heliconia sp. Draw the floral diagram of bisexual flower of Musa paradisiaca and write floral formula. The members of this family are distributed throughout the tropical regions of the world. Habit Mostly unbranched trees with arborescent stem having prominent scars of leaf bases and a crown of large leaves (eg. Nipa fruticans has no aerial stem and leaves arise directly from the underground rhizome. Stem Mostly aerial, erect, unbranched and columnar having prominent scars of leaf bases. Leaf Exstipulate, petiolate, petiole long and very strong with sheathing leaf base, palmately compound (eg. Inflorescence Large, usually lateral arising from the axils of leaves, spadix (eg. In Corypha umbraculifera (Kudai panai), the spadix is terminal and it measures about 10 metres. In Cocos nucifera male flowers are densely arranged at the upper portions of the spike and female flowers are at the base of the spike. Perianth Tepals 6 arranged in two whorls of three each, persistent, polyphyllous or gamophyllous showing valvate or twisted or imbricate aestivation. In Phoenix acaulis, the tepals of outer whorl are united and valvate while that of inner whorl are free and twisted. Anthers are dithecous, basifixed or dorsifixed, introrse and dehiscing longitudinally. As the stem increases in diameter, new roots are added at higher levels from the massive basal cushion and the youngest roots are visible above the soil surface. Stem Aerial, erect, unbranched and columnar, having prominent scars of leaf bases. Leaf Exstipulate, petiolate, petiole long and very strong with sheathing leaf base, spiral and pinnately compound showing parallel venation. Inflorescence Large, lateral arising from the axils of leaves, compound spadix, enclosed by large woody bract called spathe. Each spike in the spadix bears 2 to 3 female flowers at the base and 200 to 300 male flowers at the top. Flowers are protandrous, the female flowers open, after the male flowers have withered. Perianth Tepals 6 arranged in two whorls of three each, persistent and polyphyllous showing valvate aestivation in both the whorls.